Ghenghis Khan is only one of many great Mongol leaders in the ancient history of Mongolia. Much of the early history of Mongolia, from pre-221 BC to the Chinese Han dynasty of the times, was recorded by Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145 or 135 BC to 85 BC) in his capacity as T’ai-shih or Director of Astrology. Along with the history of China he recorded the history of the Hsiung-nu, a pastoral nomad confederation of tribes of great strength who roamed the Steppes along the Chinese northwestern and northern boarders.
From around 100 BC to 589 AD several other Chinese historians recorded this later history. Therefore we are dependent on the perspective of an enemy for our knowledge of Mongolia during the period. Thus all information needs to be examined through this filtered bias.
Who were the Ancient Mongols?
Over the centuries there have been many tribal groups wandering the Steppes, the mountains, and the deserts of Mongolia. Apart from Genghis Khan and his descendants perhaps the most famous were the Hsiung Nu and the Hun. Some scholars think these were the same peoples but this is still strongly debated. The physical descriptions of both sets of people have differences as have their tribal practices and tribal rounds. They lived at different time periods although some of their activities were similar.
It is not the purpose of this article, however, to debate who or what these peoples were. The purpose is to demonstrate there were many leaders in the Steppes who should rival Genghis Khan for his paramount place in the history of the region.
The Hsiung-Nu or Northern Barbarians
The Hsiung-Nu are the stuff of legend. They were the enemies of ancient China extolled in history books, poems and folklore. They were tribal peoples who probably conquered the horse. There is no doubt they used the horse to expand their pastoral nomadic life-style across the vast Steppe-land of Central Asia
Di Cosmo notes in her book entitled Ancient China and its Enemies that they were a “Scythian-type” society that was characterized by “expert horsemanship, martial valor, and a taste for animal-styled art whose formal conventions were shared across Central Eurasia.” Di Cosmo describes the development of these people from pastoral nomadism to the emergence of a complex, hierarchical society; this all before the fifth or fourth century BC. By the fourth century BC they were traders, herdsmen, and craftsmen with an defined aristocracy.
Di Cosmo also points out that the Great Wall of China was not built to keep the nomads out but rather as a military and economic necessity. Walls protect livestock and, although she does not mention this, they also keep people in. The nomads had horses and could always ride around the Wall but the farmers could not. Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s history of this period shows that the nomads frequently negotiated to come inside the wall to trade and to exchange their women for peace across the divide.
The author’s former adviser Wolfram Eberhard notes the difficulty of assigning defined borders to historical peoples and this difficulty is acknowledged in this article. There is an assumption that China at some time ended at the Great Wall and that all inside the Wall was Chinese. It appears the reality was much more fluid. One only has to look at the present new great wall – that between Palestine and Israel – to understand that nothing is truly as it seems.
The Hun
By 304 AD a powerful state had arisen on the Steppes that may have taken its name from the Han Dynasty. Many scholars appear to accept this view today and so the period from around 300 AD to 589 AD is sometimes referred to as the middle Hsiung-nu period rather than as a separate group of peoples. This view does not account for the diversity of peoples in Mongolia at this time nor the disparity in skull structures found in archaeological sites. The debate is outlined by Maenchen-Helfen in his work entitled The world of the Huns: studies in their history and culture. For this article what is important is that many powerful leaders arose during this time period just as in the earlier period and that technological development outstripped that of the former Hsiung-nu era.
The Leaders
Perhaps the most famous of the early leaders in ancient Mongolia was Modu Chanyu (Note: Xiao, Ke, 2003). He united a powerful confederacy in 209 BC prior to the establishment of the famous Han Dynasty of China. There are many reasons why Modu arose at the time that he did but the most practical reason is the eviction, by the Qin Chinese generals, of the Mongols from a prime grazing region beside the Yellow River. This eviction happened some years before Modu’s rise to power, in 215 BC. While he is frequently recorded in history books for his wars, especially the one against the Chinese Han Dynasty where he nearly toppled the Emperor, he should be remembered for the hierarchical structure he created which enabled the Mongols to be united into a formal structure.
After the death of Modu, in 172 BC, the confederacy became more complex and divided into left and right regions with one supreme ruler. The people met annually and carried out a census on a regular basis. The ruler of the left was normally considered to be the future ruler. Peace treaties were established between the Chinese Han Dynasty and the Mongols usually sealed with the giving of women of high birth in marriage.
There were many wars fought externally with China and internally with other Mongol tribes. The internal wars were usually caused by problems of succession. The most famous of these is possibly the civil war of 60 – 53 BC. This war was caused because there was no clear successor to the highest position and so a grandson of the Chanyu (leader) called Woyanqudi tried to take control (Note: China Papers, 2010). Woyanquidi eventually committed suicide leaving Huhanye, a rebel son, in the power position. Huhanye was forced south where he submitted to the Emperor of China. Zhizhi, another contender, was then alone in his fight for control of Mongolia. He was eventually defeated not by other Mongol leaders but by Chinese generals.
The defeat of Zhizhi did not lead to the fall of Mongolia as a state. Huhanye was still waiting near the border for his leadership chance. He decided to enter into a tributary relationship with China so that trade could continue in peace. The climate was harsh and living was difficult on the Steppes, desert and mountains of Mongolia. Peace at the boarders did not mean the country could be considered at peace. The Mongols were vassals of China but they still controlled their homeland. And so out of adversity great leaders were forged. Many powerful Hsiung-nu leaders followed in the footsteps of Modu.
Liu Yuan arose in the third century AD. His Chinese name indicated a close association with China. He believed he descended from a Chinese princess given to Mongolia in exchange for peace. This is a possible explanation for his name but he certainly descended from famous Mongols. His belief in his Chinese ancestry may be one reason why his organization was more Chinese than Mongol. He established a Mongol capital at Luoyang with an official system reminiscent of China or a large city-state. Liu Yuan, however, was Mongol enough to develop a strong cavalry of armour-clad fighters. Because China was divided at the time, and after many campaigns, his forces took control of much of northern China. Thus, Genghis Khan and his descendents were not the first Mongols to attack and take control of China although it is reasonable to say that Genghis Khan’s descendants are the only Mongols to take control of the whole of China.
Conclusion
This article is just a taste of the depth of leadership that has existed in Mongolia in ancient times. It does not do service to the rich knowledge, the organizational structures, the politics, the complexity of life nor the wide variety of leaders studded throughout the history of this vast land. Perhaps the West is ignorant of this immense history because Mongolia was isolated, a closed country, for around seven centuries.
Mongolia still seems mysterious and distant to many. It is high time to uncover its incredible bygone past.
Sources
1. China Papers. 2010. A Study of Reasons for Huns Regime’ Rise to Fall under the Domination from Modu to Woyanqudi. Posted on January 14, 2010.
2. Di Cosmo, Nicola. 2002. Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press.
3. Eberhard, Wolfram. 1953. Conquerors and rulers: social forces in medieval China. E.J.Brill Pub. Netherlands.
4. Maenchen-Helfen, Otto. 1973. The world of the Huns: studies in their history and culture. University of California Press.
5. Ssu-ma Ch’ien. 2006. The Grand Scribe’s Records. Volume V.1. The Hereditary Houses of Pre-Han China, Part 1. William H. Nienhauser, Jr. (Ed.). Weiguo Cao, Zhi Chen, Scott Cook, Hongyu Huang, Bruce Knickerbocker, William H. Nienhauser, Jr., Wang Jing, Zhang Zhenjun and Zhao Hua (Translators). Indiana University Press.
6. Xiao, Ke. 2003. The Xiongnu Tribe as Pioneers in the Development of Nomad Civilization. In On the Xiongnu Tribe as Pioneers in the Development of Nomad Civilization.
Patricia Berwick - Dr Patricia Berwick is an Educationalist/Anthropologist with over 20 years international experience in management, research, teaching and ...
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